Good Bye

This is it. I am moving to London, so this is my last message. Good Bye.

TV

TV – There is a bad side...

Mostly we only think of the TV to have only a good side. It is entertaining, educating and familiar. It is interesting and inspiring for all. But….is it really?

Every coin has two faces, so does the true identity of our beloved telly. Television is addictive and none can say no to that simple fact.  It plays with our feelings, making us see and feel a certain way. It gains our trust – becomes our closest friend and there is no way we can misjudge that fact.  In childhood it’s a parent, then a sibling and after that a friend. It is dominant in our lives, as it affects our point of view and how we live. It takes up our time, so we can wonder afterwards where it had gone. It is specifically made for our entertainment and our use.

Statistically speaking, though it varies from person to person, every average human in America watches television about four hours a day. Thus, truly, it places high stakes in our lives. 99% of Americans own at least one TV and about 250 billion hours a year are spent by watching telly. And that is only one country! Think about it globally and the numbers grow sky-high. I even bet there are at least 100 people watching TV right this second!

Television plays a great role in our life, but not only it ruins our moral stability, it also ruins our eyesight. Millions of people have eyesight problems just because of too much television. Don’t be surprised if you thought the cause to be not enough carrot, telly has grown to be such a part of our daily lives that it seems that we forgot to doubt it.

Though I just said that we do not doubt it, many people understand that they watch it for no reason. Have you ever switched on the TV to find yourself thinking that what is on the screen is rubbish. Even news sometimes will make us wince. Informative? Bah! Don’t make me laugh. News is made by the government to spoon-feed us the information that they want us to see and not the truth. Find out about it for yourself! Talk to the real spectators! Do not just your mind be brainwashed by those fools! Maybe you think it’s too much work. Or that you can decipher truth from lies. Unfortunately, you can’t.

TV is specifically made to brainwash us, to make see things only from one point of view. Television is just a machine, for goodness sake! It cannot judge the truth from the lies. That we must do ourselves.

Our television cannot be our family of friend. Though the faces inside are so familiar – you do not know them, you just see their shadow on the screen, you just see a memory. It is not real. So I must ask you, why are you reading this? Go watch some TV.

Leda and the Swan

Critical Commentary on Leda and the Swan by W.B. Yeats

In my opinion, Yeats is really an interesting writer for he managed to implore the causes and effects, the past and future, in to one single poem. He implies substance and action all in one. In the first line it is shown that the girl staggers by “a sudden blow”. The phrase about the wings may show that the girl is assaulted unwillingly. The second line is like an effect to the first one. It shows the effect to the blow – “staggering” and to the beating to the wings – “her thighs caressed”. The third line has lots of meanings. For example: “dark webs” may mean that it is the swans feet, may mean that it is a web of intrigue or it may mean that it is a web spun by the gods for humans to be trapped in. “Her nape caught in his bill” provides the uncertainness and forcing of the situation. In line 4 the crushing movement of the girl pinned against the bird is reinforced by the repetition of the word breast as the two are joined together unwillingly.

The second stanza, by itself is much different from the first. In it there is shown some resistance from Leda, but also an uncertainty or vague predomination it her mind that she cannot push the being away. “Feathered glory” of course shows upon the swan as god and holy being. Leda is being forcefully drawn into the swan and cannot push away for she still doubts her decisions and subconsciously doesn’t want to push away. The last line of the verse may suggest that she feels some emotion towards the swan.

The third verse talks about the future and about how one senseless union brought anguish to a whole country and to deaths of many people.

“A shudder in the loins engenders there

The broken wall, the burning roof and tower

And Agamemnon dead.”

This shows us the thoughtlessness of those actions and how it brought to many events that could be forewarned. It is sad how a union can bring so much death.

In the fourth verse we wonder if Leda could have known it was a god, could she have used his knowledge. Throughout the fourth chapter we understand that while Leda was so intrigued and caught up in the act, Zeus was still indifferent. He did not bear a thought of the consequences as he after getting what he wanted let her drop and flew away. Such are gods – as long as they get what they want they do not bother with what may happen.

A sudden blow: the great wings beating still

Above the staggering girl, her thighs caressed

By the dark webs, her nape caught in his bill,

He holds her helpless breast upon his breast.

How can those terrified vague fingers push

The feathered glory from her loosening thighs?

And how can body, laid in that white rush,

But feel the strange heart beating where it lies?

A shudder in the loins engenders there

The broken wall, the burning roof and tower

And Agamemnon dead.

Being so caught up,

So mastered by the brute blood of the air,

Did she put on his knowledge with his power

Before the indifferent beak could let her drop?

Kenya2

The Maasai Tribe

The Masai - also spelled Maasai - are Africa's most famous tribe. Unlike most other Kenyan tribes they have remained their traditional lifestyles - living like their ancestors have been doing for thousands of years.These tribal people who live in the grasslands between Kenya and Tanzania are a popular topic and a favourite among travellers. They are recognized by their bright red clothing and beaded jewelry. Their jumping dances are famous. Through their dances and songs, the warriors show off their strength. The Maasai people are very independent and their society revolves around each generation of men becoming warriors. Their customs are very specific, and involve many "coming of age" rituals, that include both the men and the women. The men protect the villages and the cattle, whereas the women build the houses, cook and maintain the households. The history of the Maasai stretches back hundreds of years, and today they are living much the same way as they always have. Their herds of cattle are the most important thing they own, which is why they need so much land. They are nomadic people, who travel with their herds to find pasture. The Masai live almost exclusively off their cattle, eating meat, milk and even the blood of their cows. Warriors are of crucial importance. Each Maasai man goes through the warrior stage: a period in their life between boyhood and becoming tribe elders. They can only become a warrior through several rituals. The Masai call their god Enkai, who is believed to appear in many forms and objects, among which are the moon, mountains and colors. An interesting point is that Enkai is believed to be male and female – uncommon to many other religions.

Kenya

Luhya Tribe

The Luhya tribe of Kenya represents about 14% of Kenya's population, or around 5.3 million people. They are the second largest distinct ethnic group after the Kikuyu tribe. Though not as large as the Kikuyu tribe, the Luhya tribe is much more wide-spread and diverse. There are around 16 to 18 sub-groups to the tribe, many of which speak their own dialect of the Luhya language. Some of the dialects are so different from one another that they are considered by some linguists to be separate languages altogether. The traditional territory of the Luhya is in western Kenya, positioned between Lake Victoria, the Nandi Escarpment and the border of present day Uganda. The Luhya people likely migrated into the Kenyan area from the north, from probably what is now Egypt. Agriculture was the main means of support for the Luhya tribe, with different groups specializing in different crops depending on their regions. The traditional family unit in the Luhya tribe is polygamous, though the practice of taking multiple wives isn't followed in the cities today. Among the women, the first wife was in control. Villages were made up of 10 to 15 families living together, usually connected by relation and part of the same clan. The villages were led by a headman, or shaman.

The traditional god of the Luhya was called "Were", who was worshipped along with the spirits of dead ancestors. Most Luhya have converted to Christianity. Even as Christians, many old beliefs still persist, such as the fear of witches and spirits.

Crusades

Why did People risk their lives to go on Crusades?

There were many reasons for Crusades. From simple love of war to heavenly riches. These all will be explained and shown in the following paragraphs to make your knowledge of the subject full.

“Many people died, but for God, no matter what!”

Jerusalem was the Sacred Place for all Christians because Jesus was buried there. Many of them went on pilgrimage to Jerusalem even if Muslims were controlling it. But soon there was new group of Muslims controlling Jerusalem that stopped pilgrimages and attacked Christian lands. Christians from all over Europe came to help their brothers and sisters. This is one of the reasons why they all joined Crusades. They wanted to rule Jerusalem as a place for god and be faithful to him. This is all shown in the speech of Pope Urban 11, where he says “They are destroying churches and land. In the name of God, I beg you all to drive out these foul creatures”.

Many people went to these battles, not for power, not for honour, but simply for forgiveness! They fight in the battles for pardons and for a straight route to heaven. Pope Urban 11 said “If you die on the journey or if you are killed in a battle against these Saracens (Muslims) all your sins will be forgiven at once”. In some English trials the punishment was to go in a Crusade. For example: “You have been found guilty of hitting a priest with a sword over his head. Your punishment is to go on a Crusade or pay another soldier to go instead”. Some people were forced to become Crusaders and fight for the Christendom. But, they all fought for God!

Bravery, honour and love were also kinds of reasons for the Crusaders to go into battle. People wanted to show their bravery and gain honour by going on Crusades. Some went to gain love. In 1190 a French Crusader wrote in a letter to his wife: “Alas, my darling! It breaks my heart to leave you, but I must go to the Holy Land. That is where I will win paradise and praise and your true love”. Every person wants praise, so did they. They wanted some honour, they got it… by death.

There were some other reasons of going on Crusades. Medieval people wanted new knowledge and also heavenly riches, such as some luxuries (carpets, spices…), cloth, plants and also dyes. Some people went to fight to escape their own land! Criminals, robbers, pirates, dice-players, they went to escape being caught in their own land. People tried to make up for their actions and also to gain riches. Some gained money during the Crusades. This is shown in a letter of a French Crusader to his wife in 1098: “My dear wife, I now have twice as much silver, gold and other riches as I had when I set of to battle”

Now we all see that people went on Crusades for several reasons: Power, Honour, Bravery, Love, Riches…. Nevertheless people died in this battle and women, children died too! Was it worth it? Certainly yes, but they lost lives to praise god and pray to god at the very place where he died. 

Queen Lizzie

An Obituary for Queen Elizabeth I

The time during the reign of Queen Elizabeth is referred to as the Golden Age, and for a reason. Elizabeth bloomed England’s wealth and power, defeating any problems on her way. Elizabeth was the mightiest ruler England had for a very long time. She was the real Queen of England, who always had control and never let someone overpower her!

Some people thought that she could not handle the country and needed a powerful husband to rule… She proved them wrong! Elizabeth never married, but still was a remarkable queen. She kept people guessing and this made them faithful to her forever... “I may not be a lion, but I am a lion’s cub, and I have a lion’s heart.”

At that time, there were many religious arguments, but Elizabeth knew how to keep the country together. She was tolerant to the Catholics and the Protestants alike. She mixed the two communities and by this made a firm base for England! Only due to her strength of character, England could cope with the division of religion. She made England free!

She thought only about the success of our own home, England. She dealt ruthlessly to plotters, only to save our country. She would do anything to make England the mightiest of all. She beheaded her enemies, only to secure us from the torment of the world! Elizabeth was the most faithful queen of all, giving her life to our home!

Even during the Spanish Armada, the Queen did not turn away. She battled midst us and won. Her everlasting battle spirit and the courage she has shown made even the winds be pleasant on our way. This will never be forgotten, as well as her brave speech and the Queen herself. She will always be the Empress of the world!

For memory of our mighty Queen, we have portraits. They were painted though many decades and every one of them has an inner meaning, a message deep inside. Elizabeth could not be everywhere at once, so she had portraits painted. Various ones were painted throughout her life and some still are present today! The portraits are a part of Elizabeth.

Elizabeth was a strong and wise woman. Though her life was full of trouble, she always knew the way out. She could make decisions, and they always were correct. She always listened to her advisers and was tolerant to others. In other words she was an ideal queen, a diamond in a sea of lead! She was the real Queen…

As any other monarch, she had a main secret of success. Different people see Elizabeth in different ways, so in their minds her secret of success is different. I think that her supremacy was based on Elizabeth’s tolerance and making fair circumstances between people. Though her reign was short, it brought adventure that we will never forget… Because of Queen Elizabeth!

1500 - 1750

The Positives and Negatives of Living in the 1500 – 1750

 Life at that time was hard for many people, especially the poor, but it had also many privileges and benefits.

 The wages were low and the taxes high, many people didn’t have enough money to live on and had only the goal to survive. The streets of London, dirty, diseased and crowded, were problem enough, but there were also the rivers. As you see, Britain was not the most paradise-like city at the times, but cities all around the world were not much different. Everyone had dirt and disease, everyone had poverty! As I know, Britain was not actually the worst city at the time.

 In Britain there were many privileges too – the Globe theater, the trade-markets of town, the view, the churches… The life in 1500s was not very bad! The people had theatres and churches, they had games and entertainments. There were hospitals for the sick and helpless. People helped each other, one way or another. London was busy and commercial and the river as anyone served its purpose as the transportation center. From all around the globe people came to trade wood, fruit, linen and much more exactly in London. London was interesting, London was rich with culture (and it still is now).

 I think, though every culture has its good and bad sides, England’s 1500s were much more prosperous than in other countries, so I think, that it was much better a century than before!     

Bastille

The Storming of the Bastille

The Storming of the Bastille occurred in the summer of 1789. Due to the tension of hunger, unease and rumor, peasants and civilians formed a mob to conquer the symbol of Parisian power – the Bastille. Though in the Bastille itself, there were no more than seven prisoners, the prison was a representation of power in those days. On the 14^th of July, 30000 muskets were seized from a war hospital and used to attack the building. As defense against the assault, more than two dozen Swiss soldiers and eighty army pensioners were administered.

The peasant assault itself was a lost case, if not for a soldier who “accidentally got the key and used it to open the drawbridge to the prison”. This action turned the table and the peasants, in all their numbers, stormed the Bastille and overcome its guard.

There were many causes for such an uprising – hunger, riot and disloyalty to the king. Also, a rumor spread that the king is ordering his troops to surround Paris. This all together was too much for the people living in the city and this “siege” took place. Many people died in this battle and some of the heads were put on poles for the opposition to see. 

Cromwell

Oliver Cromwell – Hero or Villain

Oliver Cromwell is one of the most confusing and misinterpreted characters of history. Some say that Cromwell is a hero, freeing England from the Royalists. On the other hand, a number of societies say that he is a murderous villain which wanted the crown for himself. Neither opinion is without drawbacks, so we will focus on the facts and find out – is Cromwell bad or good.

Let’s start with the Irish Rebellion. It is known that the Irish Catholics rebelled against the English in 1641.According to the English, the Irish committed brutal and fatal acts, but action was postponed to be dealt with after the Civil War. The Catholics of Ireland supported the son of Charles I and were clearly against Cromwell. There are several accounts of what happened at the day the assault took place. Irish writers say that the rebels surrendered, but were still put to death with their children, wives and friends. Other accounts say that the Irish refused to surrender and so the English were forced to attack. There is actually no way of knowing the truth of that incident, for both countries say their own story.

Now let us explore the matter of Cromwell and his Parliament. During the period after the Civil War, England was governed by “the Rump” – all that was left of the Long Parliament. Cromwell had hoped that it would let each Protestant worship freely and would issue elections for new Parliaments. In fact, the Parliament did none of these. Cromwell was not in the best of situations, so naturally he decided to get rid of the current ruling force. Accounts tell that Cromwell entered the House with two dozen musketeers and forcefully dissolved the parliament of that day. Barbarous, isn’t it? That is not all. The new Parliament, issued by Cromwell and the “people”, devised a new constitution. The constitution gave great power to the Lord Protector, who was Cromwell.

Now there is one question: Was Cromwell technically a king? The answer is yes and no. Cromwell did not officially take up the status of a king, but in fact did a king’s job and had more power than any king before the Civil War. In 1654 a new Parliament was elected again, but Cromwell was not happy with it. The new Parliament wanted to restrict the power to worship within the country and Cromwell was fully against the idea. So, he dismissed the Parliament once again. Charles experimented with the governing of the city – once he divided the country into eleven districts each with their own “Major General”, but that was not popular. These experiments occurred for three years, until the ideas ran out.

There was chaos and rebellion at that time. People rioted that land should belong to all. There was disarray. Many people thought that the only way to bring back order was to revive monarchy. But they were picky. They did not want Charles’s I son as king of the nation, so – as the only logical solution – they asked Cromwell, he was offered the crown. The army was against the notion – England must be ruled without a king. Though Cromwell actually refused the crown in the end, it is said that Oliver tried all possible means to persuade the officers to approve the concept. Nevertheless, Cromwell accepted a new constitution by which his son would be the next Lord Protector of the nation and a ceremony was to be held to recognize the Lord Governor, not very different from a coronation.

There is no real answer to the question if Cromwell was a hero or a villain. There is never an answer, for each person decides for himself. In my personal opinion, Cromwell was not very much different from Charles. He was arrogant and self-absorbed – a regular ruler, by all means. He was better than most and worse than some. No-one really can say the truth, for the truth does not exist.

Napoleon

Changes Made by Napoleon Bonaparte to the Domestic Governing of France

After Napoleon’s rise to the throne, many changes were made to the French Society and, specifically, to education, government and religion. It was neither Revolutionary nor monarchist – it was both at the same time, enveloping the best points of each system. In this essay, I want to cover several main areas of change targeted by Napoleon and discuss how they affected the country and its people.

Firstly, let us look at education. During Napoleon’s rule, the Churches were changed drastically. As Napoleon was a general before becoming emperor, schools became military-based and taught obedience. There were four types of schools during his rule – primary, secondary, technical and lycées. Lycées were military schools, which were kind of like grammar schools now. Napoleon took great notice of science and math. These became the key subjects in this system of education. Though it seems that Bonaparte has changed education a lot, it is not fully so. Of the many lycées established, only a meager amount was working. The system grew to its full potential only fifty years later and that is a very long time…

Next in line is government. Napoleon’s government system developed the ideas of the previous monarchists and revolutionaries into something very like what we have today. They had two National Assemblies and all men could vote, but unlike our current presidents, the emperor could not be removed. Though initially the system was very much like ours, soon after the elections ceased to take place and the country fell into a trap of corruption. All laws were made by the National Assemblies and so in theory they must have controlled the country. But in practice, Napoleon I successfully controlled the National Assembly, turning into an absolute monarch. It is as if he returned to monarchy as a successor of Louis XVI.

Third is the Church. As an emperor, Napoleon introduced many changes to religion in France during his rule. During the Revolution, the land owned by the Catholic

Church was confiscated and any religion was permitted to be practiced. But when Napoleon’s rule began, Napoleon made an agreement with the Pope, in which the Church would not get its land back, but in return Catholicism would be accepted as the major religion. It was also decided that the government would appoint the bishops. This virtually meant that the government controlled the Church. This is also confirmed Napoleon’s words – “The People must have religion, and religion must be in the hands of the government.”

Rights and Freedoms are also very important. Napoleon’s system of rights was not unlike King Louis’s or the Revolutionaries. Though officially it had many differences, the official version was mostly left for theory and not practice. Napoleon’s court was “fair” in terms of equality. Nobles and people of high-standing were not dismissed in court and were judged on the same terms as the lower classes, but it was not like this all the time. Napoleon had a “secret police”, which had the license to arrest or kill anybody without any trial on the orders of the Emperor. Freedom was a question of viewpoint at the time. Though people could vote, they did not have the freedom of speech. Newspapers and information were controlled by the government and no-one could openly say their mind. As Napoleon said:  “It is not what is true that counts, but what people think is true” and “If the press is not controlled, I shall not remain three days in power.”

We must also observe the Societies changes as Napoleon went to the throne. The new Emperor tried to suit everyone and make everyone, except women, happy. For the peasants, he made sure that they could own their land, by destroying the Feudal System and the classes. For the nobles, he guarantied stability. He sometimes awarded titles and ranks for one or another deed, though these titles gave no special privileges to their bearers. The Catholic Church was pleased as it was restored to its former power, but unlike King Louis’s rule, the peasants did not need to pay tithes to the Church. By satisfying everyone, Napoleon made himself loved and respected by the majority of France, which virtually was why he had such great authority and power.

I want to discuss Napoleon’s treatment of women at the time. Bonaparte regarded women equal to men and even once said that they are best suited only for marriage, having children and knitting. In my opinion, it is a very rude thing to say. During the time of the Revolution, many feminist communities were formed, which even fought in the wars and supported the Revolutionaries. During the rule of the first Emperor of France, that viewpoint, taken up by the Revolution, was abolished. Napoleon proclaimed: “In France women are considered too highly. They should not be regarded as equal to men. In reality they are nothing more than machines for producing children”, “Public education does not suit women, as they are not called upon to live in public… marriage is their whole estimation”, “The husband must possess the absolute power and right to say to his wife: ‘Madam you shall not go to the theatre, you shall not receive such and such a person, for the children you bear shall be mine’. Women should stick to knitting.” In the code of Napoleon, it was written – “A wife could only own property with her husband’s consent in writing. Wives were not allowed to sell or give away property.”

As we now explored the changes made by Napoleon Bonaparte during his rule, it is best to see if he could have done better and if his changes had some effect. Looking at the question of education, his reformations were quite impressive. Though most of his reforms only took power about 50 years after their formation, they are still used today and the Baccalaureate is an exam that we still use. I find the alterations in education, personally, quite well suited for a country such as France and applaud Napoleon for such changes, but there is always room for improvement. This especially concerns the treatment of women and their education. Napoleon has almost successful in evening out the say of people in the government, but in that he made himself the sole leader of the government. This resulted in a great collapse, when Napoleon went off to fight all the other countries around him, which was virtually most of the time. His rule in France was not one to be called fair, but it was somewhat better than some others at the time. Though the majority of people did not have freedom of speech and could not voice their mind, Napoleon tried to please everyone and so prevent and revolt.

The Church, the Rights, the Courts – Bonaparte changed them all. He was a great ruler, no doubt, and though we cannot judge were his decisions good or bad, we can really say that Napoleon reformed France to a great extent during his rule. One can say that though his ego kept him warring and his diplomatic skills were not at their best, his changes to France were some of the greatest in the country’s history.

By Valentina C.

Caesar

Veni, vidi, vici. 'I came, I saw, I conquered.' These are the words of the man who changed the course of Greco-Roman history.

Julius Caesar was born in Rome on July 12 or 13, in the year 100 B.C.. His father Gaius Caesar, died when Caesar was 16 years old, and it was his mother Aurelia, who proved to be quite influential in his life. Caesar's family was part of Rome's original aristocracy, called patricians, although they were not rich or particularly influential. At the time of Caesar's birth, the number of patricians was small, and their status no longer provided political advantage.

To obtain distinction for himself and his family, a Roman nobleman sought election to public office. In 86 B.C., Caesar was appointed flamen dialis with the help of his uncle by marriage, Gaius Marius. The position was one of an archaic priesthood and held no power. Nevertheless, it identified Caesar with extremist politics. Ceasar committed himself further to the radical side when he married Cornelia, daughter of Lucius Cornelius Cinna in 84 B.C.

In 82 B.C., Caesar was ordered to divorce his wife by Lucius Cornelius Sulla, an enemy of the radicals. Caesar refused and prudently left Rome for military service in Asia and Cilicia. He returned in 78 B.C. when Sulla died and began his political career as a prosecuting advocate. Caesar then traveled to Rhodes to study rhetoric and did not return to Rome until 73 B.C. During his journey to Rhodes, Caesar was captured by pirates. While in captivity, Caesar convinced his captors to raise his ransom, which increased his prestige. He then raised a naval force, overcame his captors, and had them crucified.

In 69 or 68 B.C., Caesar was elected quaestor. His wife died shortly thereafter. In a purely political maneuver, Caesar seized the opportunity to praise his uncle, Cinna and father-in-law, Marius during the funeral orations for his deceased wife. He then married Pompeia, a relative of Pompey. Caesar was elected curule aedile in 65 B.C., pontifex maximus in 63 B.C., and a praetor in 62 B.C. By this time, Caesar was making a name for himself as a political figure. He divorced Pompeia after a scandal.

Caesar was made governor of Farther Spain in 61 B.C. When he returned to Rome the next year, he joined forces with Crassus and Pompey and formed the first triumvirate. The alliance between Pompey and Ceasar was solidified further when Pompey married Julia, Caesar's only child.

Caesar's next step up the political ladder was to be elected consul in 59 B.C. During that year he also married Calpurnia. The following year, Caesar was appointed governor of Roman Gaul. During the next 8 years, Caesar successfully conquered Gallic Gaul to the north. In 49 B.C., Caesar was instructed by the Senate to lay down his command. Roman politics had changed following the death of Crassus in 53 B.C., and Pompey was appointed sole consul in 52 B.C.. In addition, Pompey's wife Julia died in 54 B.C., breaking the family ties between Pompey and Caesar.

On January 10-11, 49 B.C., Caesar crossed the Rubicon, a small river separating Gaul from Italy, signifying the start of the Roman Civil War. Pompey fled and within three months, Caesar ruled of all Italy. He then took Spain and continued to pursue Pompey all the way to Egypt. In 48 B.C., Pompey was murdered by an officer of King Ptolemy. Caesar remained in Egypt throughout the winter and dallied with Queen Cleopatra.

In 48 B.C., Caesar assumed the title of dictator. He returned to Rome for a short time in 47 B.C. but then left for Africa to crush his opponents. Caesar departed for Farther Spain in 46 B.C. to put down resistance there. In 45 B.C., Caesar returned to Rome to put his empire in order.

On March 15, 44 B.C., a day known as the Ides of March, Caesar entered the Senate House. An assassination plot had been hatched by a group of 60 senators, including Gaius Cassius and Marcus Junius Brutus. As Caesar entered the Senate, he was stabbed 23 times. After Ceasar was assassinated, Rome experienced another 13 years of civil war.

When the Roman Republic was first set up, in 500 BC, the people in charge were two men called consuls. Women were not allowed to be consuls. The consuls controlled the army, and they decided whether to start a war and how much taxes to collect and what the laws were. They both had to agree in order to change anything; if one of them said “veto”, Latin for “I forbid it”, then nothing would be done.

The consuls got advice from the Senate, which was made up of men from wealthy families in Rome. Women were not allowed in the Senate, either. Once you got into the Senate, you stayed in for the rest of your life. Most consuls eventually joined the Senate, and most senators were from families where their fathers and grandfathers had been in the Senate. Most of the time, the consuls did what the Senate advised.

There were also prefects in Rome, whose job it was to run the city – some heard court cases, some ran the vegetable markets or the meat markets or the port.

There were tribunes, who were supposed to speak for the poorer people in the Senate. Tribunes were elected by the Assembly, and they could veto (forbid) anything the Senate voted for that affected the poor (which ended up being pretty much anything the Senate voted on). These, too, were all men.

Finally, there was also an Assembly of all the men (not women) who were grownup and free and had Roman citizenship. They voted on some big issues, if the consuls asked them to – things like whether to go to war. And they elected the consuls and prefects and the Senators. But the Assembly was set up so that richer people got more votes than poorer people.

Once the Romans began conquering other places, far away from the city of Rome, they also had a system of provincial governors – men who took charge of a province of the Empire, and who heard court cases there. They were also in charge of the army while it was conquering places.

Chinese Astronomy

Introduction

Chinese scholars began by thinking of the stars, the sun, and the moon as gods. But by the time of the Han Dynasty, about 130 AD, scholars like Zhang Heng knew that the moon was a sphere, lighted by the sun on one side and dark on the side away from the sun. Zhang Heng also understood what caused solar and lunar eclipses. Chinese astronomers, like Roman and Sassanian astronomers of the same time period in Europe and West Asia, were very interested in the stars both for scientific reasons and because they believed that the skies could help predict the future. But Chinese astronomy was much more advanced than our Western one and they progressed much quicker than us.

The purpose of astronomy in the past

One of the main functions was for the purpose of timekeeping. The Chinese used a “luni-solar” calendar, but, because the cycles of the sun and the moon are different, leap days, weeks and even months had to be inserted into the calendar.

The Chinese calendars were considered to be a symbol of a dynasty. As dynasties would rise and fall, astronomers and astrologers of each period would often prepare a new calendar to be made, with observations for that purpose.

Ancient Chinese astronomers divided the stars into “fixed stars” and “guest stars”.  The supernova that created the “Crab Nebula” observed in 1054 (now known as the SN 1054) is an example of a “guest star” observed by Chinese astronomers, although it was not recorded by their European contemporaries.

Models of the Heavens

The Chinese developed three different cosmological models. The Gai Tan, or hemispherical dome, model conceived the heavens as a hemisphere lying over a dome-shaped earth. The second cosmological model, associated with the Hun Tian School, saw the heavens as a celestial sphere not unlike the spherical models developed by the Greeks. The third model, associated with the Xuan Ye School, viewed the heavens as infinite in size and the stars as floating spheres of light passing the Earth at rare intervals, and as they said: "the speed of the luminaries depends on their individual natures, which shows they are not attached to anything." The Xuan Ye School was right about the size, but the “luminaries”, as they called them, do not move “on their individual natures”, but it is the Earth that moves.

Constellations

Chinese constellations are the groupings used by the ancient Chinese to organize the stars. They are very different from the modern constellations. This is because the modern ones were based on Greco-Roman astronomy instead of Chinese astronomy.

Ancient Chinese “sky-watchers” divided their night sky into 31 regions: the Three Enclosures and the Twenty-Eight Mansions. The Three Enclosures occupy the area close to the North Celestial Pole. The stars in the Three Enclosures can be seen all year around. The Twenty-Eight Mansions occupy the “zodiacal band”. These find their equivalent in the 28 lunar mansions of western astrology. Though marked along the zodiac, they are defined by the movement of the Moon rather than the Sun.

The Chinese Constellations are:

·         The Purple Forbidden Enclosure

·         The Supreme Palace Enclosure

·         The Heavenly Market Enclosure

·         Virgo

·         Libra

·         Scorpios

·         Sagittarius

·         Capricorn

·         Aquarius

·         Aries

·         Taurus

·         Gemini

·         Cancer

·         Spica

·         Antares

·         Aquarius/Pegasus

·         Pegasus

·         Andromeda

·         Pleiades

·         Orion

·         Hydra

·         Alphard

·         Crater

·         Corvus

·         Aries

·         Sagittarius

·         Corvus

·         Orion

·         Pegasus

·         Aquarius

·         Libra